Re-Imagining Masculinity Through Social Empathy
Abstract
The language of crises speaks differently for both men and women. With women, children, and the elders having to face the impacts more prominently, these groups of people are constantly marginalised, especially during troubled times. During this COVID-19 pandemic, one of the most concerning crises that arise is the crisis that involves societal life, gender relations, and masculinity performances, heightening the issue of gender inequality. The increasing number of domestic violence in particular countries shows that the essentialist idea of masculinity plays a big part in shaping men's response to the socio-gender crisis. This paper discusses how masculinity can be reimagined towards behaviours that embrace social empathy.
References
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Baron-Cohen, S. (2011). The Science Of Evil: On Empathy and The Origins Of Cruelty. New York: Basic Books.
Baron-Cohen, S. & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The Empathy Quotient: An Investigation Of Adults With Asperger Syndrome Or High Functioning Autism, and Normal Sex Differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163 – 175.
Bergara, A., Riviere, J. & Bacete, R. (2010). Men, Equality and New Masculinities. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Emakunde
Beynon, J. (2002). Masculinities and Culture. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Blair, R. J. R. (2005). Responding To The Emotions Of Others: Dissociating Forms Of Empathy Through The Study Of Typical and Psychiatric Populations. Consciousness and Cognition 14(4), 698-718.
Boise, S. D. & Hearn, J. (2017). Are Men Getting More Emotional? Critical Sociological Perspectives On Men, Masculinities and Emotions. The Sociological Review, 65(4), 779 – 796.
Brown, B. (2012). Daring Greatly. New York: Gotham Books.
Brown, B. (2012). Listening to shame. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psN1DORYYV0.html [14 January 2020] .
Cohen, D. (1990). Being A Man. London: Routledge.
Connell, R.W. (2005). Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Copenhaver, M. M., Lash, S. J., & Eisler, R. M. (2000). Masculine Gender-Role Stress, Anger, and Male Intimate Abusiveness: Implications For Men’s Relationships. Sex Roles, 42, 405–414.
Craib, I. (1994). The Importance Of Disappointment. London: Routledge.
Cuff, B. M. P., Brown, S. J., Taylor, L. & Douglas, H. (2016). Empathy: A Review Of The Concept. Emotion Review, 8(2), 144 – 153.
Davis, C.M. (1990). What Is Empathy and Can Empathy Be Taught? Physical Therapy, 70, 707 – 715.
Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2004). The Functional Architecture Of Human Empathy. Behavioural and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 3(2), 71-100.
Donovan, F. (2007). Dealing With Anger To Prevent Violence: A Social, Emotional and Practical Response To Prevent Anger And Violence. Ph.D. Exegesis, Melbourne, RMIT University.
Gorton, K. (2007). Theorising Emotion and Affect. Feminist Theory, 8(3), 333–348.
Grande, D. (2019). Emotional Vulnerability As The Path To Connection. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/in-it-together/201902/emotional-vulnerability-the-path-connection [30 April 2021].
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The Origins Of Sex Differences In Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions Versus Social Roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408–423.
Eisenberg, N. & Fabes, R. A. (1991). Prosocial Behavior And Empathy: A Multimethod, Developmental Perspective. In Clark, M. (ed.). Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 12, 34–61. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Elliott, K. (2016). Caring Masculinities: Theorizing An Emerging Concept. Men and Masculinities, 19(3), 240 – 259.
Fan, Y., Duncan, N., de Greck, M. & Northoff, G. (2010). Is There A Core Neural Network In Empathy? An Fmri Based Quantitative Meta-Analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(3), 903 – 911.
Fisher, A. N., & Ryan, M. K. (2021). Gender Inequalities During COVID-19. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(2), 237 – 245.
Flecha, R., Puigvert, L. & Rios, O. (2013). The New Alternative Masculinities and The Overcoming Of Gender Violence. International and Multidisciplinary Journal of Social Sciences, 2(1), 88 – 103.
Forrest, S. (2010). Young Men In Love: The (Re)Making Of Heterosexual Masculinities Through Serious Relationships. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 25(2), 206–218.
Hanlon, N. (2009). Valuing Equality In Irish Social Care. Irish Journal of Applied Social Studies, 9(1), 6 – 14.
Hanlon, N. (2012). Masculinities, Care and Equality: Identity and Nurture in Men’s Lives. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hearn, J. (2001). Men and Gender Equality: Resistance, Responsibilities and Reaching Out. Keynote at the Conference Men and Gender Equality. Örebro, Sweden. http://xyonline.net/content/men-and-gender-equality-resistance-responsibilities-and-reaching-out-2001 [20 May 2021].
Hearn, J. (2004). From Hegemonic Masculinity To The Hegemony Of Men. Feminist Theory, 5(1), 49 – 72.
Hooks, B. (2004). The Will To Change: Men, Masculinity And Love. New York: Washington Square Press.
Kaufman, M. (1999). The Six P’s Of Men’s Violence. Men and Violence. The International Association for Studies of Men, 6(2), 6 – 9.
Kimmel, M. & Aronson, A. (2004). Men & Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia. California: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
Kimmel, M. & Holler, J.Z. (2011). The Gendered Society. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Kimmel, M. (2005). The History of Men: Essays in the History of American and British Masculinities. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Kimmel, M. (2010). Misframing Men: The Politics Of Contemporary Masculinities. New York: Rutgers University Press.
Lynch, K., Baker, J., Lyons, M., Feeley, M., Hanlon, N., O''Brien, M., Walsh, J. & Cantillon, S. (2009). Affective Equality. UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mellström, U. (2020). COVID-19, Masculinity And Risk/At Risk. International Journal for Masculinity Studies, 15(2), 94 – 96.
Michalska, K. J., Kinzler, K. D., & Decety, J. (2013). Age-Related Sex Differences In Explicit Measures Of Empathy Do Not Predict Brain Responses Across Childhood And Adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 3, 22–32.
Montes, V. (2013). The Role Of Emotions In The Construction Of Masculinity: Guatemalan Migrant Men, Transnational Migration, and Family Relations. Gender and Society, 27(4), 469–490.
Morrell, R. & Jewkes, R. (2011). Care work And Caring: A Path To Gender Equitable Practices Among Men In South Africa. International Journal for Equity in Health, 10(1).
Paul, S. K. (2013). Vulnerability Concepts And Its Application In Various Fields: A Review On Geographical Perspective. J. Life Earth Sci., 8, 63 – 81.
Pease, B. (2014). Reconstructing Masculinity Or Ending Manhood? The Potential And Limitations Of Transforming Masculine Subjectivities For Gender Equality. In Carabi, A. & Armengol, J.M. (ed.). Alternative Masculinities for a Changing World, 17 – 34.
Pelligra, V. (2011). Empathy, Guilt-Aversion, and Patterns Of Reciprocity. Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics, 4(3), 161-173.
Polaschek, D. L. L. (2003). Empathy and Victim Empathy. In T. Ward, D. R. Laws & S. M. Hudson. (ed.). Sexual Deviance: Issues and controversies, 172-189. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Portell, D. & Pulido, C. (2012). Communicative Acts Which Promote New Masculinities. Overcoming Hegemonic Masculinity In The Workplace and The School. Masculinities and Social Change, 1(1), 61 – 80.
Probyn, E. (2004). Everyday Shame. Journal of Cultural Studies, 18(2-3), 328 – 349.
Roberts, S. (2015). Debating Modern Masculinities: Change, Continuity, Crisis? Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan
Roberts, L. (2019). Toxic Masculinity On Television: A Content Analysis Of Preferred Adolescent Programs. Unpublished Master Thesis, The University Of Arizona.
Rueckert, Linda. (2011). Gender Differences In Empathy. Psychology Of Empathy, 221-234.
Ruxton, S., & Burrell, S. R. (2020). Masculinities and COVID-19: Making The Connections. Washington, DC: Promundo-US.
Sattel, J. W. (1976). The Inexpressive Male: Tragedy Or Sexual Politics? Social Problems, 23, 469-477.
Scambor, E., Bergmann, N., Wojnicka, K., Belghiti-Mahut, S., Hearn, J., Holter, Ø. G., Gärtner, M., Hrženjak, M., Scambor, C., & White, A. (2014). Men and Gender Equality: European Insights. Men and Masculinities, 17(5), 552–577.
Seidler, V, J. (1994). Unreasonable Men: Masculinity and Social Theory. London: Routledge.
Segal, E. A. (2011). Social Empathy: A Model Built On Empathy, Contextual Understanding, and Social Responsibility That Promotes Social Justice. Journal of Social Service Research, 37(3), 266 – 277.
Segal, E. A., Wagaman, M. A., Gerdes, K.E. (2012). Developing The Social Empathy Index: An Exploratory Factor Analysis. Advances in Social Work, 13(3), 541 – 560.
Singer, T., & Lamm, C. (2009). The Social Neuroscience Of Empathy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 81-96.
Stets, J. E. & Burke, P. J. (2000). Femininity/Masculinity. In Borgatta, E. F. & Montgomery, R. J. V. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Sociology. Revised Edition, 997 – 1005. New York: Macmillan.
Thompson, C. (1992). On Being Heterosexual In A Homophobic World. In W. Blumenfield (ed.). Homophobia, 125 – 142. Boston: Beacon Press.
Thompson, E.H. Jr. & Bennett, K.M. (2015). Measurement Of Masculinity Ideologies: A (Critical) Review. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, Advance online publication, 1 – 20.
Tutnjevic, T. (2004). Gender In Crisis Response: A Guide To The Gender-Poverty-Employment Link. International Labour Office: Geneva.
Vandello, J. A., & Bosson, J. K. (2013). Hard-Won And Easily Lost: A Review and Synthesis Of Theory And Research On Precarious Manhood. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(2), 101–113.
Wagaman, M. A. (2011). Social Empathy As A Framework For Adolescent Empowerment. Journal of Social Service Research, 37(3), 278-293.
Wedgwood, N. (2009). Connell's Theory Of Masculinity: Its Origins And Influences On The Study Of Gender. Journal of Gender Studies, 18(4), 329 – 339.
White, A. & Peretz, T. (2009). Emotions And Redefining Black Masculinity: Movement Narratives Of Two Profeminist Organizers. Men and Masculinities, 12(4), 403–424.
Wojnicka, K. (2021). Men and Masculinities In Times Of Crisis: Between Care and Protection. International Journal for Masculinity Studies, 16(1), 1 – 5.
Barnett, G. D. & Mann, R. E. (2013). Cognition, Empathy, and Sexual Offending. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 14(1), 22-33.
Baron-Cohen, S. (2011). The Science Of Evil: On Empathy and The Origins Of Cruelty. New York: Basic Books.
Baron-Cohen, S. & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The Empathy Quotient: An Investigation Of Adults With Asperger Syndrome Or High Functioning Autism, and Normal Sex Differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163 – 175.
Bergara, A., Riviere, J. & Bacete, R. (2010). Men, Equality and New Masculinities. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Emakunde
Beynon, J. (2002). Masculinities and Culture. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Blair, R. J. R. (2005). Responding To The Emotions Of Others: Dissociating Forms Of Empathy Through The Study Of Typical and Psychiatric Populations. Consciousness and Cognition 14(4), 698-718.
Boise, S. D. & Hearn, J. (2017). Are Men Getting More Emotional? Critical Sociological Perspectives On Men, Masculinities and Emotions. The Sociological Review, 65(4), 779 – 796.
Brown, B. (2012). Daring Greatly. New York: Gotham Books.
Brown, B. (2012). Listening to shame. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psN1DORYYV0.html [14 January 2020] .
Cohen, D. (1990). Being A Man. London: Routledge.
Connell, R.W. (2005). Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Copenhaver, M. M., Lash, S. J., & Eisler, R. M. (2000). Masculine Gender-Role Stress, Anger, and Male Intimate Abusiveness: Implications For Men’s Relationships. Sex Roles, 42, 405–414.
Craib, I. (1994). The Importance Of Disappointment. London: Routledge.
Cuff, B. M. P., Brown, S. J., Taylor, L. & Douglas, H. (2016). Empathy: A Review Of The Concept. Emotion Review, 8(2), 144 – 153.
Davis, C.M. (1990). What Is Empathy and Can Empathy Be Taught? Physical Therapy, 70, 707 – 715.
Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2004). The Functional Architecture Of Human Empathy. Behavioural and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 3(2), 71-100.
Donovan, F. (2007). Dealing With Anger To Prevent Violence: A Social, Emotional and Practical Response To Prevent Anger And Violence. Ph.D. Exegesis, Melbourne, RMIT University.
Gorton, K. (2007). Theorising Emotion and Affect. Feminist Theory, 8(3), 333–348.
Grande, D. (2019). Emotional Vulnerability As The Path To Connection. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/in-it-together/201902/emotional-vulnerability-the-path-connection [30 April 2021].
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The Origins Of Sex Differences In Human Behavior: Evolved Dispositions Versus Social Roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408–423.
Eisenberg, N. & Fabes, R. A. (1991). Prosocial Behavior And Empathy: A Multimethod, Developmental Perspective. In Clark, M. (ed.). Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 12, 34–61. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Elliott, K. (2016). Caring Masculinities: Theorizing An Emerging Concept. Men and Masculinities, 19(3), 240 – 259.
Fan, Y., Duncan, N., de Greck, M. & Northoff, G. (2010). Is There A Core Neural Network In Empathy? An Fmri Based Quantitative Meta-Analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(3), 903 – 911.
Fisher, A. N., & Ryan, M. K. (2021). Gender Inequalities During COVID-19. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(2), 237 – 245.
Flecha, R., Puigvert, L. & Rios, O. (2013). The New Alternative Masculinities and The Overcoming Of Gender Violence. International and Multidisciplinary Journal of Social Sciences, 2(1), 88 – 103.
Forrest, S. (2010). Young Men In Love: The (Re)Making Of Heterosexual Masculinities Through Serious Relationships. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 25(2), 206–218.
Hanlon, N. (2009). Valuing Equality In Irish Social Care. Irish Journal of Applied Social Studies, 9(1), 6 – 14.
Hanlon, N. (2012). Masculinities, Care and Equality: Identity and Nurture in Men’s Lives. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hearn, J. (2001). Men and Gender Equality: Resistance, Responsibilities and Reaching Out. Keynote at the Conference Men and Gender Equality. Örebro, Sweden. http://xyonline.net/content/men-and-gender-equality-resistance-responsibilities-and-reaching-out-2001 [20 May 2021].
Hearn, J. (2004). From Hegemonic Masculinity To The Hegemony Of Men. Feminist Theory, 5(1), 49 – 72.
Hooks, B. (2004). The Will To Change: Men, Masculinity And Love. New York: Washington Square Press.
Kaufman, M. (1999). The Six P’s Of Men’s Violence. Men and Violence. The International Association for Studies of Men, 6(2), 6 – 9.
Kimmel, M. & Aronson, A. (2004). Men & Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia. California: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
Kimmel, M. & Holler, J.Z. (2011). The Gendered Society. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
Kimmel, M. (2005). The History of Men: Essays in the History of American and British Masculinities. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Kimmel, M. (2010). Misframing Men: The Politics Of Contemporary Masculinities. New York: Rutgers University Press.
Lynch, K., Baker, J., Lyons, M., Feeley, M., Hanlon, N., O''Brien, M., Walsh, J. & Cantillon, S. (2009). Affective Equality. UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mellström, U. (2020). COVID-19, Masculinity And Risk/At Risk. International Journal for Masculinity Studies, 15(2), 94 – 96.
Michalska, K. J., Kinzler, K. D., & Decety, J. (2013). Age-Related Sex Differences In Explicit Measures Of Empathy Do Not Predict Brain Responses Across Childhood And Adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 3, 22–32.
Montes, V. (2013). The Role Of Emotions In The Construction Of Masculinity: Guatemalan Migrant Men, Transnational Migration, and Family Relations. Gender and Society, 27(4), 469–490.
Morrell, R. & Jewkes, R. (2011). Care work And Caring: A Path To Gender Equitable Practices Among Men In South Africa. International Journal for Equity in Health, 10(1).
Paul, S. K. (2013). Vulnerability Concepts And Its Application In Various Fields: A Review On Geographical Perspective. J. Life Earth Sci., 8, 63 – 81.
Pease, B. (2014). Reconstructing Masculinity Or Ending Manhood? The Potential And Limitations Of Transforming Masculine Subjectivities For Gender Equality. In Carabi, A. & Armengol, J.M. (ed.). Alternative Masculinities for a Changing World, 17 – 34.
Pelligra, V. (2011). Empathy, Guilt-Aversion, and Patterns Of Reciprocity. Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics, 4(3), 161-173.
Polaschek, D. L. L. (2003). Empathy and Victim Empathy. In T. Ward, D. R. Laws & S. M. Hudson. (ed.). Sexual Deviance: Issues and controversies, 172-189. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Portell, D. & Pulido, C. (2012). Communicative Acts Which Promote New Masculinities. Overcoming Hegemonic Masculinity In The Workplace and The School. Masculinities and Social Change, 1(1), 61 – 80.
Probyn, E. (2004). Everyday Shame. Journal of Cultural Studies, 18(2-3), 328 – 349.
Roberts, S. (2015). Debating Modern Masculinities: Change, Continuity, Crisis? Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan
Roberts, L. (2019). Toxic Masculinity On Television: A Content Analysis Of Preferred Adolescent Programs. Unpublished Master Thesis, The University Of Arizona.
Rueckert, Linda. (2011). Gender Differences In Empathy. Psychology Of Empathy, 221-234.
Ruxton, S., & Burrell, S. R. (2020). Masculinities and COVID-19: Making The Connections. Washington, DC: Promundo-US.
Sattel, J. W. (1976). The Inexpressive Male: Tragedy Or Sexual Politics? Social Problems, 23, 469-477.
Scambor, E., Bergmann, N., Wojnicka, K., Belghiti-Mahut, S., Hearn, J., Holter, Ø. G., Gärtner, M., Hrženjak, M., Scambor, C., & White, A. (2014). Men and Gender Equality: European Insights. Men and Masculinities, 17(5), 552–577.
Seidler, V, J. (1994). Unreasonable Men: Masculinity and Social Theory. London: Routledge.
Segal, E. A. (2011). Social Empathy: A Model Built On Empathy, Contextual Understanding, and Social Responsibility That Promotes Social Justice. Journal of Social Service Research, 37(3), 266 – 277.
Segal, E. A., Wagaman, M. A., Gerdes, K.E. (2012). Developing The Social Empathy Index: An Exploratory Factor Analysis. Advances in Social Work, 13(3), 541 – 560.
Singer, T., & Lamm, C. (2009). The Social Neuroscience Of Empathy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 81-96.
Stets, J. E. & Burke, P. J. (2000). Femininity/Masculinity. In Borgatta, E. F. & Montgomery, R. J. V. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Sociology. Revised Edition, 997 – 1005. New York: Macmillan.
Thompson, C. (1992). On Being Heterosexual In A Homophobic World. In W. Blumenfield (ed.). Homophobia, 125 – 142. Boston: Beacon Press.
Thompson, E.H. Jr. & Bennett, K.M. (2015). Measurement Of Masculinity Ideologies: A (Critical) Review. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, Advance online publication, 1 – 20.
Tutnjevic, T. (2004). Gender In Crisis Response: A Guide To The Gender-Poverty-Employment Link. International Labour Office: Geneva.
Vandello, J. A., & Bosson, J. K. (2013). Hard-Won And Easily Lost: A Review and Synthesis Of Theory And Research On Precarious Manhood. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(2), 101–113.
Wagaman, M. A. (2011). Social Empathy As A Framework For Adolescent Empowerment. Journal of Social Service Research, 37(3), 278-293.
Wedgwood, N. (2009). Connell's Theory Of Masculinity: Its Origins And Influences On The Study Of Gender. Journal of Gender Studies, 18(4), 329 – 339.
White, A. & Peretz, T. (2009). Emotions And Redefining Black Masculinity: Movement Narratives Of Two Profeminist Organizers. Men and Masculinities, 12(4), 403–424.
Wojnicka, K. (2021). Men and Masculinities In Times Of Crisis: Between Care and Protection. International Journal for Masculinity Studies, 16(1), 1 – 5.
Published
2022-05-01
How to Cite
AZIZAN, Maryam; M.M., Raihanah.
Re-Imagining Masculinity Through Social Empathy.
Asian Journal of Behavioural Sciences, [S.l.], v. 4, n. 1, p. 83-90, may 2022.
ISSN 2710-5865.
Available at: <https://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/ajbs/article/view/18084>. Date accessed: 20 sep. 2024.
Section
Articles
