Police Stress and Conflict During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Conceptual Paper
Abstract
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a blueprint for a better and more sustainable future. Goal 16 states that all people should have access to justice and that courts and the justice system should be an integral part of national accountability systems. The police, prosecutors, courts, jail system, and ministries that deal with justice and policing are all institutional targets. As a result, police officers perform a critical role in ensuring that citizens live safely by safeguarding their lives. Throughout the Goal 16 aims, there is a commitment to live in safety and prosperity. All elements of society were affected by the COVID-19 epidemic, which caused societal upheaval and altered conventions, but the first responders were particularly hard hit. Police officers were intended to arrange local shutdowns, encourage social distance, and enforce stay-at-home mandates. To minimize or break the chain of the COVID-19 epidemic, police officers must urge social separation and the usage of face masks. As a result, the focus of this conceptual paper will be on a discussion of the possible stress and conflict experienced by police officers and future research that other researchers can pursue.
References
Afzalur, R. M. (2010). Managing Conflict in Organizations. Transaction Publishers. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4128-1456-0.
Barasa, S.W. (2017). Influence of Work Environment on Performance in the Public Security Sector with a Focus on the Police in Nairobi Kenya. Political Economy - Development: Public Service Delivery eJournal.
Biggam, F. H., Power, K. G., Macdonald, R. R., Carcary, W. B.,&Moodie, E. (1997). Selfperceived occupational stress distress in a Scottish police force. Work and Stress, 11, 118/133.
Chaiwuttisak, P. (2019). Factors Affecting Efficiency of Police Stations in Metropolitan Police Division 3. In Proceedings of the 2019 2nd International Conference on Mathematics and Statistics (ICoMS'19). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 19–23. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1145/3343485.3343488
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512.
de Haas, S., Timmerman, G & Höing, M. (2010).The Impact of Sexual Harassment Policy in the Dutch Police Force. Employ Respons Rights J 22, 311–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10672-009-9133-3
Dick, G. (2009). The influence of managerial factors on bullying in the police. Working Paper Series. Kent Business School, University of Kent. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260026111_The_Influence_of_Managerial_Factors_on_Bullying_in_the_Police
Evans, B., Coman, G., & Stanley, R. (1992). The police personality: Type A behavior and trait anxiety. Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 429-441.
Hartley, T. A., Burchfiel, C. M., Fekedulegn, D., Andrew, M. E., & Violanti, J. M. (2011). Health disparities in police officers: Comparisons to the U.S. general population. Int J Emerg Mental Health, 13, 211–220.
Husain, W. (2020). Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Among Urban and Rural Police Officers. J Police Crim Psych 35, 443–447. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-019-09358-x
Isa, A. A. (2015). Conflicts in organizations: Causes and consequences. Journal of Educational Policy and Entrepreneurial Research (JEPER), 2(11), 54–59. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311558401_Conflicts_in_Organizations_Causes_and_Consequences
Griffin, J.D., Sun, I.Y. (2018). Do Work-Family Conflict and Resiliency Mediate Police Stress and Burnout: a Study of State Police Officers. Am J Crim Just 43, 354–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9401-y
Jackson, E.A. and Jabbie, M. (2019). Understanding Market Failure in the Developing Country Context (Online First). In, Walter L. Filho (eds), Decent Work and Economic Growth: Encyclopedia of Sustainable Development Goals, Springer Nature Publisher. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71058-7_44-1.
Jackson, E.A. and Jabbie, M. (2020). Importance of the Public Service in Achieving the UN SDGs. Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/101806/1/MPRA_paper_101806.pdf.
Johnson, J V; Hall, E M. (1988). "Job strain, work place social support, and cardiovascular disease: a cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population". American Journal of Public Health. 78 (10): 1336–1342. doi:10.2105/ajph.78.10.1336. PMC 1349434. PMID 3421392.
Jowett, S. (2007). Social Psychology in Sport. Human Kinetics. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-7360-5780-6.
Karasek, R. (1979). Job Demands, Job Decision Latitude, and Mental Strain: Implications for Job Redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 285-308. doi:10.2307/2392498
Lambert E. G., Qureshi H., Frank J., Keena L. D., Hogan N. L. (2016b). The relationship of work-family conflict with job stress among Indian police officers: a research note. Police Pract. Res. 18 37–48. 10.1080/15614263.2016.1210010
Long, D. (2012). "Understanding Police-Citizen Conflict: A Neighborhood Environmental Perspective". Education Doctoral. Paper 120.
Lindgren, J. (1981). Organizational and other constraints on controlling the use of deadly force by police. Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, 455, 110- 119. doi:10.1177/000271628145500110
Manning, P. K. (1980). Violence and the police role. Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, 452, 135-144. doi:10.1177/000271628045200113
McCraty, R., & Atkinson, M. (2012). Resilience training program reduces physiological and psychological stress in police officers. Glob Adv Health Med, 1, 42–64.
McTernan, W., Dollard, M., & LaMontagne, A. (2013). Depression in the workplace: An economic cost analysis of depression-related productivity loss attributable to job strain and bullying. Work & Stress, 27, 321 - 338.
NIOSH (1999). Stress at Work. U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication Number 99-101.
Paoline, E. A. (2003). Taking stock: Toward a richer understanding of police culture. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 199–214.
Queirós, C., Passos, F., Bártolo, A., Marques, A. J., da Silva, C. F., & Pereira, A. (2020). Burnout and Stress Measurement in Police Officers: Literature Review and a Study With the Operational Police Stress Questionnaire. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 587. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00587
Quick, J. C., & Henderson, D. F. (2016). Occupational Stress: Preventing Suffering, Enhancing Wellbeing. International journal of environmental research and public health, 13(5), 459. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13050459
Rayner, C; Cooper, C. L. (2006). "Workplace Bullying". In Kelloway, E. Kevin; Barling, Julian; Hurrell, Joseph J. (eds.). Handbook of Workplace Violence. Sage. pp. 121–146. ISBN 978-0-7619-3062-4.
Rout, U. R. & Rout, J. K. (2002). "Occupational Stress". Stress Management for Primary Health Care Professionals. Springer. pp. 25–39. doi:10.1007/0-306-47649-5_3. ISBN 978-0-306-47649-5.
Schafer, 1. (2010). The ineffective police leader: acts of commission and omission. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38 (2010) 737-746.
Schonfeld, I.S., & Chang, C. H. (2017). Occupational health psychology: Work, stress, and health. New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Shirzad, H., Abbasi Farajzadeh, M., Hosseini Zijoud, S. R., & Farnoosh, G. (2020). The role of military and police forces in crisis management due to the COVID-19 outbreak in Iran and the world. Journal of Police Medicine, 9(2), 63–70.
Sinclair, R. R., & Cheung, J. H. (2016). Money matters: Recommendations for financial stress research in occupational health psychology. Stress and Health, 32(3), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2688
Sulsky, L. & Smith, C. (2005). Work Stress. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Stogner, J., Miller, B.L. & McLean, K. Police Stress, Mental Health, and Resiliency during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Am J Crim Just (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09548-y
Stotland, E., & Pendleton, M. (1989). Workload, stress, and strain among police officers. Behavioral medicine (Washington, D.C.), 15(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.1989.9935146
Terrill, W., Paoline, E. A., & Manning, P. K. (2003). Police culture and coercion. Criminology, 41, 1003–1034.
UNDP. (n.d). Retrieved from https:// www.un.org/ development/ desa/ disabilities/ envision2030.html
Viegas, V., Henriques, J. (2021). Job Stress and Work-Family Conflict as Correlates of Job Satisfaction Among Police Officials. J Police Crim Psych 36, 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-020-09388-w
WHO. (2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/331686
WHO. (2020). Occupational health: Stress at the workplace. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/ccupational-health-stress-at-the-workplace
Barasa, S.W. (2017). Influence of Work Environment on Performance in the Public Security Sector with a Focus on the Police in Nairobi Kenya. Political Economy - Development: Public Service Delivery eJournal.
Biggam, F. H., Power, K. G., Macdonald, R. R., Carcary, W. B.,&Moodie, E. (1997). Selfperceived occupational stress distress in a Scottish police force. Work and Stress, 11, 118/133.
Chaiwuttisak, P. (2019). Factors Affecting Efficiency of Police Stations in Metropolitan Police Division 3. In Proceedings of the 2019 2nd International Conference on Mathematics and Statistics (ICoMS'19). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 19–23. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1145/3343485.3343488
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512.
de Haas, S., Timmerman, G & Höing, M. (2010).The Impact of Sexual Harassment Policy in the Dutch Police Force. Employ Respons Rights J 22, 311–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10672-009-9133-3
Dick, G. (2009). The influence of managerial factors on bullying in the police. Working Paper Series. Kent Business School, University of Kent. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260026111_The_Influence_of_Managerial_Factors_on_Bullying_in_the_Police
Evans, B., Coman, G., & Stanley, R. (1992). The police personality: Type A behavior and trait anxiety. Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 429-441.
Hartley, T. A., Burchfiel, C. M., Fekedulegn, D., Andrew, M. E., & Violanti, J. M. (2011). Health disparities in police officers: Comparisons to the U.S. general population. Int J Emerg Mental Health, 13, 211–220.
Husain, W. (2020). Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Among Urban and Rural Police Officers. J Police Crim Psych 35, 443–447. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-019-09358-x
Isa, A. A. (2015). Conflicts in organizations: Causes and consequences. Journal of Educational Policy and Entrepreneurial Research (JEPER), 2(11), 54–59. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311558401_Conflicts_in_Organizations_Causes_and_Consequences
Griffin, J.D., Sun, I.Y. (2018). Do Work-Family Conflict and Resiliency Mediate Police Stress and Burnout: a Study of State Police Officers. Am J Crim Just 43, 354–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-017-9401-y
Jackson, E.A. and Jabbie, M. (2019). Understanding Market Failure in the Developing Country Context (Online First). In, Walter L. Filho (eds), Decent Work and Economic Growth: Encyclopedia of Sustainable Development Goals, Springer Nature Publisher. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71058-7_44-1.
Jackson, E.A. and Jabbie, M. (2020). Importance of the Public Service in Achieving the UN SDGs. Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/101806/1/MPRA_paper_101806.pdf.
Johnson, J V; Hall, E M. (1988). "Job strain, work place social support, and cardiovascular disease: a cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population". American Journal of Public Health. 78 (10): 1336–1342. doi:10.2105/ajph.78.10.1336. PMC 1349434. PMID 3421392.
Jowett, S. (2007). Social Psychology in Sport. Human Kinetics. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-7360-5780-6.
Karasek, R. (1979). Job Demands, Job Decision Latitude, and Mental Strain: Implications for Job Redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 285-308. doi:10.2307/2392498
Lambert E. G., Qureshi H., Frank J., Keena L. D., Hogan N. L. (2016b). The relationship of work-family conflict with job stress among Indian police officers: a research note. Police Pract. Res. 18 37–48. 10.1080/15614263.2016.1210010
Long, D. (2012). "Understanding Police-Citizen Conflict: A Neighborhood Environmental Perspective". Education Doctoral. Paper 120.
Lindgren, J. (1981). Organizational and other constraints on controlling the use of deadly force by police. Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, 455, 110- 119. doi:10.1177/000271628145500110
Manning, P. K. (1980). Violence and the police role. Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, 452, 135-144. doi:10.1177/000271628045200113
McCraty, R., & Atkinson, M. (2012). Resilience training program reduces physiological and psychological stress in police officers. Glob Adv Health Med, 1, 42–64.
McTernan, W., Dollard, M., & LaMontagne, A. (2013). Depression in the workplace: An economic cost analysis of depression-related productivity loss attributable to job strain and bullying. Work & Stress, 27, 321 - 338.
NIOSH (1999). Stress at Work. U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication Number 99-101.
Paoline, E. A. (2003). Taking stock: Toward a richer understanding of police culture. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 199–214.
Queirós, C., Passos, F., Bártolo, A., Marques, A. J., da Silva, C. F., & Pereira, A. (2020). Burnout and Stress Measurement in Police Officers: Literature Review and a Study With the Operational Police Stress Questionnaire. Frontiers in psychology, 11, 587. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00587
Quick, J. C., & Henderson, D. F. (2016). Occupational Stress: Preventing Suffering, Enhancing Wellbeing. International journal of environmental research and public health, 13(5), 459. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13050459
Rayner, C; Cooper, C. L. (2006). "Workplace Bullying". In Kelloway, E. Kevin; Barling, Julian; Hurrell, Joseph J. (eds.). Handbook of Workplace Violence. Sage. pp. 121–146. ISBN 978-0-7619-3062-4.
Rout, U. R. & Rout, J. K. (2002). "Occupational Stress". Stress Management for Primary Health Care Professionals. Springer. pp. 25–39. doi:10.1007/0-306-47649-5_3. ISBN 978-0-306-47649-5.
Schafer, 1. (2010). The ineffective police leader: acts of commission and omission. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38 (2010) 737-746.
Schonfeld, I.S., & Chang, C. H. (2017). Occupational health psychology: Work, stress, and health. New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Shirzad, H., Abbasi Farajzadeh, M., Hosseini Zijoud, S. R., & Farnoosh, G. (2020). The role of military and police forces in crisis management due to the COVID-19 outbreak in Iran and the world. Journal of Police Medicine, 9(2), 63–70.
Sinclair, R. R., & Cheung, J. H. (2016). Money matters: Recommendations for financial stress research in occupational health psychology. Stress and Health, 32(3), 181–193. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2688
Sulsky, L. & Smith, C. (2005). Work Stress. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Stogner, J., Miller, B.L. & McLean, K. Police Stress, Mental Health, and Resiliency during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Am J Crim Just (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09548-y
Stotland, E., & Pendleton, M. (1989). Workload, stress, and strain among police officers. Behavioral medicine (Washington, D.C.), 15(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.1989.9935146
Terrill, W., Paoline, E. A., & Manning, P. K. (2003). Police culture and coercion. Criminology, 41, 1003–1034.
UNDP. (n.d). Retrieved from https:// www.un.org/ development/ desa/ disabilities/ envision2030.html
Viegas, V., Henriques, J. (2021). Job Stress and Work-Family Conflict as Correlates of Job Satisfaction Among Police Officials. J Police Crim Psych 36, 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-020-09388-w
WHO. (2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Situation Report. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/331686
WHO. (2020). Occupational health: Stress at the workplace. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/ccupational-health-stress-at-the-workplace
Published
2022-03-01
How to Cite
AB RAHMAN, Farah Adilla et al.
Police Stress and Conflict During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Conceptual Paper.
Asian Journal of Behavioural Sciences, [S.l.], v. 4, n. 1, p. 1-8, mar. 2022.
ISSN 2710-5865.
Available at: <https://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/ajbs/article/view/17365>. Date accessed: 20 sep. 2024.
Section
Articles
